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Line 241: − − − <!--T:110--> − <!--T:111-->+ − + − <!--T:112-->+ − Climate change effects will interact with other risks such as food security, and social and political factors. One example of this can be found in parts of West Africa. In the Sahel, desertification means that cattle herders are migrating southward with their livestock in search of grazing pastures. This has led to increasing violent clashes between these herders and farmers in the south, whose crops are being destroyed and consumed by the trespassing cattle of the nomadic herders. As a consequence, farms and farmlands are being abandoned from fear of violence, creating food shortages and threats to food security. − <!--T:113--> − Reductions in food availability are expected to be more significant at 2°C compared to 1.5°C, and even greater with larger temperature changes, especially in the Sahel, southern Africa, the Mediterranean, central Europe and the Amazon<ref name=":15">[https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/spm/ IPCC Section B5.3]</ref> with smaller yields of maize, rice, wheat and other cereal crops, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central and South America. + − <!--T:114-->+ − Crop and livestock production is projected to decrease and may even have to be abandoned in parts of Europe’s southern and Mediterranean regions due to the increased negative impacts of climate change<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/climate-change-threatens-future-of EEA “Climate Change Threatens Futures of Farming in Europe]</ref>. − <!--T:115--> − With rising temperatures it’s expected that livestock will be affected, depending on the extent of changes in available animal feed, spread of diseases, and water resource availability<ref name=":15" />. There is also evidence that climate change has resulted in changes to agricultural pests and diseases<ref name=":18">[https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/ IPCC Summary for Policy Makers]</ref>. − <!--T:116--> − Climate change risks to food security and access are expected to become high between 1.2-3.5°C of warming. Very high between 3-4°C warming, and catastrophic at 4°C and above. − <!--T:117--> − Rising CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations are expected to reduce the protein and nutrient content of major cereal crops, which would further reduce food and nutritional security<ref>[https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/34949/MPN_ESEN.pdf UNEP 2021, Making Peace with Nature], SPM Background Section 3.7 </ref>. − + − +
→… food security?
Food security means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life<ref>[https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/food_security.shtml#:~:text=What%20is%20food%20security%3F,a%20productive%20and%20healthy%20life. United Nations' Committee on World Food Security]</ref>.<br>
Food security means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life<ref>[https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/food_security.shtml#:~:text=What%20is%20food%20security%3F,a%20productive%20and%20healthy%20life. United Nations' Committee on World Food Security]</ref>.<br>
Food security is threatened by the loss of pollinators and fertile soil as a result of the ecological crisis, and the Earth’s capacity to sustain growing needs for nutritious food will continue to weaken in the face of ongoing environmental declines.
Food security is threatened by the loss of pollinators and fertile soil as a result of the ecological crisis, and the Earth’s capacity to sustain growing needs for nutritious food will continue to weaken in the face of ongoing environmental declines.
Climate change has already affected food security due to warming, changing rain patterns and a greater frequency of extreme weather. Changes in weather means that in recent years crop yields have declined in some regions, and increased in others. Climate change is affecting food security in drylands, particularly those in Africa, and high mountain regions of Asia and South America<ref>[https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/ IPCC 2019 Special Report on Land] SPM Section A </ref>. desertification means that cattle herders are migrating southward with their livestock in search of grazing pastures. This has led to increasing violent clashes between these herders and farmers in the south, whose crops are being destroyed and consumed by the trespassing cattle of the nomadic herders. As a consequence, farms and farmlands are being abandoned from fear of violence, creating food shortages and threats to food security.
Climate change has already affected food security due to warming, changing rain patterns and a greater frequency of extreme weather. Changes in weather means that in recent years crop yields have declined in some regions, and increased in others. Climate change is affecting food security in drylands, particularly those in Africa, and high mountain regions of Asia and South America<ref>[https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/ IPCC 2019 Special Report on Land] SPM Section A </ref>.
Reductions in food availability are expected to be more significant at 2°C compared to 1.5°C, and even greater with larger temperature changes, especially in the Sahel, southern Africa, the Mediterranean, central Europe and the Amazon<ref name=":15">[https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/spm/ IPCC Section B5.3]</ref> with smaller yields of maize, rice, wheat and other cereal crops, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central and South America.
Crop and livestock production is projected to decrease and may even have to be abandoned in parts of Europe’s southern and Mediterranean regions due to the increased negative impacts of climate change<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/climate-change-threatens-future-of EEA “Climate Change Threatens Futures of Farming in Europe”]</ref>
With rising temperatures it’s expected that livestock will be affected, depending on the extent of changes in available animal feed, spread of diseases, and water resource availability<ref name=":15" />. There is also evidence that climate change has resulted in changes to agricultural pests and diseases<ref name=":18">[https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/ IPCC Summary for Policy Makers]</ref>.
Climate change risks to food security and access are expected to become high between 1.2-3.5°C of warming, very high between 3-4°C warming, and catastrophic at 4°C and above. Rising CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations are expected to reduce the protein and nutrient content of major cereal crops, which would further reduce food and nutritional security<ref>[https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/34949/MPN_ESEN.pdf UNEP 2021, Making Peace with Nature], SPM Background Section 3.7 </ref>.
=== <big>… water security?</big> === <!--T:118-->
=== <big>… water security?</big> ===
Water security is measured by water availability, water demand and quality (levels of pollution) in water sources.
=== Water security is measured by water availability, water demand and quality (levels of pollution) in water sources. ===